When someone new to the world of dog shows watches judging in the ring, it must be as though they are trying to look into a world that operates in a different dimension.  They see dogs of a breed that certainly look all alike and they are moved around and they run in and out of the ring and sometimes back in again.  All such pretty dogs, how could a judge choose and what is going on?

We know there are some sporting events that are easily understood by the observer and some that are not.  We can perhaps begin with easily understood events such as archery, darts or bowling.  The competitor stands in a specific place and launches the object (arrow, dart or bowling ball) at a target and it is obvious to everyone whether he or she was successful.  Anyone, even if they have never seen a game of bowling, can determine if the bowler threw a strike because there are no pins left standing.  Although the degree of success of the effort is easy to observe, we know it is not easy to learn how to throw a strike consistently or how to shoot an arrow to hit a bull’s eye with more than simply random frequency.  Even with easily understood sporting events, the ability to accomplish success requires coaching, study, practice and experience. 

The next sport in our continuum might be team activity sports such as football or soccer.  The activity is more complex and there are even rules about whether a successful goal will count.  The observer requires more than a cursory knowledge of the sport in order to have a full understanding and appreciation for the activity.  People unfamiliar with the sport may soon become disinterested because they have no understanding of the technicalities. Nevertheless most can appreciate a grand happening like a home run in baseball or a touchdown in football. 

From here we move on to more “subjective” competitions.  Examples may include diving or ice skating.  There are many factors involved in scoring these events, most of which only someone with significant involvement in the sport can identify.  There still are some telltale signs, which a casual observer can use to determine an estimate of success.  When the diver “rips” into the water without a splash or the ice skater lands on one foot and continues to skate without interruption we know this indicates some level of accomplishment.  However, we have virtually no ability to judge the difficulty or quality of their effort.  A skater may wobble when landing a very difficult move whilst another makes a solid landing on a much easier trick and we most likely have no appreciation for the difference; all we know is one landing looked good and one landing didn’t.  We may, if we are foolhardy enough, attempt to argue the judging is “political” when the skater with the obvious wobble scores higher than the one with the pretty landing.  We have no factual basis on which to come to such a conclusion but our ignorance allows us to do so because we do not understand, in depth, that sport and we assume our common logic is knowledge enough.  This is an important point which I hope you will remember for it will be visited several times in this manual.  It is important to realize that even though we may call a sport “subjective” it is based on well conceived and highly detailed specifications.  The “subjective” part is that it requires a human being who understands (or more correctly, should understand) these details to make a determination of the degree of success the individual achieved.

We will now make yet another move to events in which there are no obvious clues for the casual observer to identify the successful execution in an event.  For instance, ballroom dancing is not a sport any casual observer could judge with consistent accuracy.  Unless a dancer experiences a mishap and trips, which is highly unlikely, we require expert commentary in order to understand the competition.  We can certainly enjoy watching it without such commentary but we cannot truly understand it.  Dressage in horses is another example where a casual observer cannot evaluate performance.  Are these sports less structured or less rules bound than archery or football or diving?  Does the ability to achieve success require less commitment, less skill, less talent, or less coaching than the “objective” competitions?  The answer, of course, is no to both questions. 

Subjectivity does not imply lack of knowledge, lack of structure or lack of a standard.  It, in fact, relies much more heavily on these concepts.  Subjectivity is not “just your personal opinion.”  It is the assessment of a situation or condition which requires education and experience to satisfactorily interpret.  When you see a doctor his or her “opinion” or “diagnosis” is subjective.  It is based on their knowledge developed through both significant and continuing education and experience.  A doctor can accurately diagnose a condition and thus effectively provide treatment whereas someone who uses his or her own “common sense” to make an evaluation will have a high failure rate.  Is the doctor’s diagnosis – which is, in fact, their opinion – no more valuable than your Aunt Martha’s?   I daresay we treat medical diagnoses with great respect, even if we choose to seek another opinion.

We are now able to discuss the exhibition of dogs.  Any animal lover will experience great pleasure from watching a dog show even though they may have no training or knowledge of the matter.  However, it is a very critical understanding that subjective opinions which are not based on education, coaching, training and experience are just as close to accurate as your Aunt Martha diagnosing your health condition. 

Almost every dog breed that has a sizable fancy has a national breed club.  The breed club is a collection of serious persons who wish to work toward achieving three main goals: to preserve that breed, to promote that breed and to protect that breed.  “Preservation” means to ensure the breed of dog remains purebred and to ensure the characteristics of that breed are retained from generation to generation into perpetuity.  “Promotion” means to ensure the breed of dog successfully integrates into society and that it always has relevance.  “Protection” means to ensure the breed is neither exploited nor allowed to become extinct.  The primary intersection of exhibiting dogs and the goals of the national breed club is the first one, preservation.

To someone new to dog showing, the true purpose of exhibiting is not understood but it is often surmised to be either to win large amounts of cash or to be able to say their dog is better than someone else’s.  Just looking at a dog show catalog will quickly dispel the first myth – the prizes, if they exist at all, will be worth less than the cost to bring the dog to the show.  The second is just as inaccurate although I suppose many do participate with a need to feel superior in their possessions.  The true purpose of showing dogs is to allow serious breeders to gather in one place, to bring their exhibits in the best condition possible and to allow an impartial judge to select which are the best.  In selecting which are the best, the judge evaluates the dogs based on his or her understanding of breed characteristics.  Although many assume the judge’s job is to the “pick the best” their actual job is to pick the dogs that are most likely to produce the best.  We will discuss genetics in more depth later but suffice it to say the best physical specimens are typically the ones who have the best chance of producing the best puppies.  It is the theory that physical characteristics indicate a dog’s producing ability that becomes the complete foundation for showing dogs.

Several years ago I wrote an article in which I made the statement dogs shows were about evaluating breeding stock and to my surprise a very experienced breeder / handler called me and said, “I’m just letting you know you’re going to get a lot of criticism for making that statement.  That isn’t why dog shows exist, it is to pick the best dog, period!”  Needless to say I was utterly surprised that anyone involved with showing dogs for such a long time would be so misinformed about the very basis of what we do.  The following is a quote from the AKC website under A Beginner’s Guide to Dog Shows,  “Dog shows (conformation events) are intended to evaluate breeding stock. The size of these events ranges from large all-breed shows, with over 3,000 dogs entered, to small local specialty club shows, featuring a specific breed. The dog's conformation (overall appearance and structure), an indication of the dog's ability to produce quality puppies, is judged.”  While this may not seem significant now, it will be come very clear why judging a dog as breeding stock is critical in the next chapter.

Just as we discussed “standards” in other competitions so each breed of dog has a “breed standard.”  This is a detailed written description of the ideal characteristics for that breed.  These details, to the best of the breed clubs’ abilities, describe what a near perfect specimen of that breed should look like when standing still, how it should look when it moves and what its temperament (i.e., personality) should be.  The breed standards are very demanding and they are written with the expectation that no single dog will conform to every single detail.  Some breed standards contain disqualifications which means if a specimen of that breed possesses that characteristic it cannot compete in dog shows.  This does not necessary imply that dog cannot be used for breeding if its other characteristics are especially outstanding – this is a topic we will explore in more depth in later.

When a judge examines or “goes over” a dog, they are inspecting that dog for all the specific details as outlined in the breed standard.  Breed standards vary somewhat in the level of detail and specificity they convey but they typically instruct approximately how tall an exhibit should be, how long it should be, the shape of the head, the shape, color and set of the eyes, the length of muzzle, the depth and width of head, the set on of the ears, the length of the ears, the color of the pigmentation on the nose and eye rims, the formation of the teeth, the relative length of neck, the formation of the forelegs, the size and shape of the leg bone, the proportion from ground-to-elbow compared to elbow-to-top-of-shoulder, etc.  The standard will describe the ideal coat, its density, its texture, its length, its variation on the body and it’s color.  It will specify the formation of the ribs, the length of the ribcage on the body, and the depth of the ribcage.  It will detail items which someone not specially trained will have great difficulty in understanding such as the length and angle of the humerus (upper arm) and scapula (shoulder blade), the length and angle of the ischium (pelvis), the length of the loin.  It will specify the size and shape of the front and back feet, the number of toes and which way they should point.  It will specify the length of the tail, the angle at which it joins the body and the way it should be carried when standing and when the dog moves.

After this inspection, the judge will ask the exhibit be moved away and then toward him or her.  They will also want to see the dog move from the side.  Each breed moves in a specific manner.   This examination is to determine the dog’s  “soundness” as specified for that breed and it is comprised of such elements as the dog’s rear drive, the tracking of the feet, the timing of the footfall, the extension of the front, the ability to cover the maximum amount of ground with the fewest number of steps, and the ability to maintain a proper outline while moving.  The gait at which all breeds are evaluated is essentially the same - it is the trot.  If a dog is moved at an inappropriate gait, such as at a pace or gallop, the handler is asked to move the dog again at the appropriate gait.

The judge will also observe the behavior of the dog while in the ring.  This will include how the dog reacts to his or her approach, how they react to the manual inspection, how they react when being moved, how they react when they stop in front of the judge.  In addition, how the dog behaves around other dogs in the ring is also a consideration and specific for each breed.  This is called “temperament.”  The level of comfort, of relaxation, the degree of showmanship is called “attitude.”    

It is not uncommon for many dog breeders to label the characteristics when the dog is being manually inspected as those which constitute breed “type.”  The term “type” means the degree to which the characteristics of the dog match the characteristics as described in the standard.  Of course, it is clearly obvious that the characteristics of the dog in movement and the temperament characteristics must also factor into this evaluation and I therefore consider “type” to include all static, all movement and all personality characteristics together. An ice skater who falls on their jumps, a bowler who fails to throw strikes or an archer who misses the bull’s eye is never great in their sport no matter how technically correct their form. To be a truly successful breeder you must understand all these elements for your breed and you must develop the ability to manifest them all in the dogs you breed.  

We must now take one more step on the staircase of understanding and more fully explore this concept of “breed type.”  In some breeds the ideal as specified in the standard is so well explained that if a dog’s characteristics match the description they will, by default, be “typey.”  However, many breeds have more leeway in the description and it requires significant study to “get a feel” for type.  I use that terminology because the ability to understand breed type utilizes much of the artistic, right-side of the brain.  An analogy I might use is music.  We all know people who are, by their very nature, “musical.”  They may or may not have had training but they somehow seem to connect to and feel music.  We also most likely have met people who have diligently studied music but who do not seem to be “musical.”  They simply don’t have the ability to make their music flow, they are less able to move it to the emotional level which makes true musicians so noteworthy.  Can “musicality” be specifically and discretely described?  Probably not yet we know it when we hear it and it technically is the combination of all the elements documented in a sheet of music.  Over time we have been exposed to musicians and most of us “instinctively” know when someone is musical or when they are not.  Therefore, if the characteristics which combine to produce “musicality” was the essence of a dog breed, we could say it was a feature of type.  Or perhaps I can describe it as the difference between two paintings – one painted by an amateur of uncertain ability and one painted by someone of talent and training.  They may both be pictures of the exact same subject matter and therefore they may both meet the basic requirements but the difference between the two maybe significant.  One will be perfunctory and the other, a vision which moves you emotionally.  The learning of breed type moves you from the basic stick drawing to the transcendental masterpiece.  So type can be described only to a certain limit through the breed standard, after that the ability to ascertain the nuances of type becomes a capability that some of us will see and some of us may not see.  In order to become a breeder of note, or as Patricia Trotter calls it in her excellent book, Breed to Succeed Born to Win, a master breeder, it is very important that you develop the ability to ascertain this esoteric sense of type for your breed.  You will do this by constant exposure to the very typiest specimens of the breed.  In order to experience this you must travel to the largest gatherings of your breed which usually includes the national specialty which is put on by the national breed club.  This event is typically held once a year and often rotates around the country.  It is of utmost importance that you expose yourself, first hand, to the very typiest specimens of the breed from the outset.  If you have already begun to establish an “ideal” in your mind it may even require retraining your brain when you gain exposure to these dogs. 

The intention of this book is not to unduly repeat topics adequately explored in other dog books and so I do not intend to launch into detailed lessons on structure or movement.  However, we will explore these topics to a level that will get you started in reaching out to other materials to more fully educate yourself.

A dog’s “structure” is essentially the formation of the skeleton and to a lesser extent the muscling and ligaments.  The focus areas for this discussion are the bones which make up the forehand and the bones which make up the rearhand.  If you learn nothing else from this book I hope you will learn the vital importance the forehand plays in type, structure and movement of the dog and will put its understanding high up in importance of whatever else you learn.  Because the dog fancy is largely untrained, the lack of understanding of forehand is a tremendous gap in most breeders’ understanding and therefore it is a gap in most dogs bred by these breeders.  It is therefore a great opportunity for a new breeder who understands the critical need for training, education, coaching and experience. 

The forehand consists of the shoulder blade, the upper arm, the forearm and the pasterns to the feet.  For most breeds, the desire is to breed a shoulder blade which is long and an upper arm which is equally as long (relative to breed size, of course).  The angle at which these two bones meet should be nearly a right angle.  I will not go into minute detail on this conceptual idea because as radiography has become more advanced it is realized such an angle is extreme and rarely obtainable.  However, conceptually this is the angle you want as your mental image for most dog breeds.  The top edge of the shoulder forms a high point and ideally this is placed so that it provides for a smooth transition between the line of the neck as seen in profile and the back. A shoulder is rarely too angled backward but it is very frequently too upright.  An upright or straight shoulder typically does not form a smooth transition and often lies closer to the neck than the back.  Often this creates a more abrupt transition from the neck to the back that results in an angle instead of a slope.  The shoulder blade then is joined to the upper arm at the bottom of the blade. The top of the shoulder blade is called the wither and the bottom of the blade where it joins the upper arm is called the point of shoulder.   If you place the finger of one hand on the top of the wither and the finger of the other hand at the point of shoulder you should get the sense it is an approximate 45 degree angle to the ground.  I often say the impression you should get at looking at how a neck blends into the backline (or topline) when the shoulder is properly laid back is that if you dropped a scarf at the top of the neck it should slide down onto the topline without being stopped by an angle.  This is the “image” you should have in your mind.  This shoulder layback is clearly visible in the photographs of good horses.

The upper arm should slope back from the point of shoulder to the elbow where it joins the forearm.  This angle from point of shoulder to elbow should also approximate a forty-five degree angle and is called the return of upper arm.  The distance from point of shoulder to elbow – which is the approximate length of the upper arm – should be as close in measure to that of the shoulder blade from wither to point of shoulder.   Very frequently the length of the upper arm is noticeably shorter than the length of the shoulder blade and very often it is not sufficiently angled backward.  

As mentioned previously, every breed has specific measurements.  The ideal description of the forehand just provided to you is correct in the majority of dog breeds.  However, many of the artic breeds, some sighthounds and bulldogs require less angulation of the shoulder than described.  It is important that you become conversant with your chosen breed’s standard to determine this.  Additionally, there are some breeds which either require the upper arm to be less angled or require it to be both less angled and shorter than the shoulder blade.  Again, many artic breeds, some sighthounds, bulldogs as well as many terrier breeds have such specifications.   There are also many breeds which do require this construction but consistently fail to match it.  Many sporting breeds fall into this category in the United States yet excel in this regard in other countries.  Do remember, just because a specified virtue isn’t often seen does not mean it is not desired.  In your experience as a dog breeder you will meet many more people who are untrained and yet vociferously opinionated than you will meet people who are truly knowledgeable.  It is your responsibility to ensure your education, training and coaching are received from qualified individuals.

We will also discuss the rearhand construction.  This will include the pelvis called the croup, the upper thigh, the lower thigh and the rear pastern (often referred to as the hock).  Ideally, most breeds covet a pelvis of good length and one which is set at an approximate angle of 30 degrees.  A long pelvis at this angle forms a projection beyond the tailset of the dog which is generally very desirable.  The upper thigh and lower thigh come together at an approximate angle of 90 degrees and this joint is called the stifle.  Like the shoulder and upper arm construction, the upper thigh is ideally angled at 45 degrees to the ground and the lower thigh another 45 degree angle.  For best movement, the length of the upper thigh should be approximately equal to the length of the lower thigh.  The joint at which the rear pastern joins the lower thigh is called the hock.  It is very common for breeders to refer to the rear pastern itself as the hock but actually this is the joint.  For most breeds the rear pastern should be short and stand perpendicularly to the ground from every viewpoint.  When the rear pasterns are relatively short, the dog is said to be well let down in the hock. 

As with the forehand, the rearhand formation described is the ideal for most dog breeds.  However, there are breeds which require less than a 90 degree angle at the stifle.  A rear described in its breed standard as “well angulated” requests a near 90 degree angle.  A rear described in its breed standard as “moderately” angulated requests a less angled structure.  The Chow Chow standard requests virtually no angulation of these joints and this is termed straight stifled.

The movement of the dog is greatly influenced by the lengths, the length relationships and the angles of the forehand and rearhand.  Dogs which have less angulation in the forehand tend to move with less reach and therefore do not have as long a front stride as those with longer, more angulated forehands.  Likewise, less rear angle generally translates to less push or drive than more angulated rearhands.  Variations among bone lengths in the forehand can result in a dog who lifts his front legs too high, crosses over or is too restricted.  Similarly, variation of the rear can result in moving too close in the rear, untrue footfall or lack of drive.  The angles of front and rear should ideally be well balanced or similar to each other in angle.  When all things are properly engineered, the dog can easily and tirelessly cover the ground which is evident in evaluating the movement from the side or what is termed, sidegait. It takes a great deal of training to understand the ideal construction of a dog of a specific breed and to identify ideal movement for there are many variations from the ideal.  In addition to skeletal influences, muscling, ligamentation, conditioning and temperament also affect movement.